Von Economo Neurons and Self-Awareness

Von Economo Neurons and Self-Awareness Joshua McCosker Von Economo neurons (VENs) are large bipolar neurons found in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), frontoinsular cortex (FI) and dorsolateral prefrontal area (DLPA) in the brains of humans, and to a lesser extent, the great apes, several cetaceans and elephants. It is believed that they arose independently within these species due to evolutionary pressure that required the rapid transmission and cognitive processing of social information in animals with large highly convoluted brains and complex social behaviours (Hakeem et al., 2009). Research has suggestedsuggests that the evolution of these neurons underlie the emergence of intuition, higher emotional cognitive functions and self-referential processes. This suggests an intriguing connection with the subjective conscious experience and self-conscious awareness (Critchley Seth, 2012). To investigate this connection between VENs and self-awareness it is necessary to examine the known behavioural functions of the ACC and FI, along w ith the evolution of these structures and the integration with this novel class of neuron. Furthermore, the higher social functions attributed to VENs and how these are related to awareness of consciousness self will be discussed in light of research that shows a correlation between the degeneration of VENs in several neuro-psychiatric disorders that leads to devastating deficits in conscious awareness and social skills (Butti, Santos, Uppal, Hof, 2013). The ACC and FI are found in the paralimbic cortex (also known as mesocortex) of the mammalian brain and represents a relatively ancient region that has recently gone through a period of evolutionary adaptive changes in humans and is directly connected to limbic structures while providing a transition to higher neocortical regions (Brà ¼ne et al., 2010; William W. Seeley et al., 2006). These paralimbic structures show increased connectivity with the hippocampus, amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex and septum; the septum is involved in social memory and the development of trust in humans (Allman, Tetreault, Hakeem, Park, 2011). It is hypothesised that this enhanced connectivity is mediated by VENs that project from the FI and ACC to these structures providing functional integration with of somatosensory input and higher cognitive emotional processes leading to the emergence of intuition, social and self-awareness and the ability to empathise (Allman, Tetreault, Hakeem, Manaye, et al., 201 1; Allman, Tetreault, Hakeem, Park, 2011). AIC as the input sensory region and ACC as the output control region (Craig, 2009; W. W. Seeley et al., 2007). The evolutionary expansion of the cerebral cortex gave rise to the neocortex in mammals leading to a volumetric increase in humans of several-hundred times over that of lower primates (Nimchinsky et al., 1999). However, the types of neurons found within the brain have remained relatively constant (Nimchinsky et al., 1999; William W. Seeley et al., 2006). In 1926 Constantin Von Economo first described the cortical distribution and morphology of a novel class of neuron as being spindle like in form and of unusual length (Butti et al., 2013).. Von Economo neurons are large bipolar projection neurons that are relatively recent on the evolutionary path (Allman, Watson, Tetreault, Hakeem, 2005). They have large axons that bidirectionally connect the ACC to the FI and in turn to other structures of the brain between the limbic cortex and neocortex; suggesting a role in the rapid transmission of sensory information between these structures. Although VENs have been found in the FI and ACC of species other than great apes and homonids the cells are not found in the concentrated clusters that have been described in higher primates (Bauernfeind et al., 2013). It is interesting to note that volumetric studies have shown that the evolutionary expansion in size of the FI in primates is disproportionately greater to overall brain expansion by 36% and the total volume of the FI is about 4 times larger in humans compared to that of the chimpanzee (Bauernfeind et al., 2013). Furthermore, it is known that the vast majority of VENs develop during the first 8 months of life (Allman et al., 2010) . and this coincides with the emergence of stranger anxiety, separation anxiety and increased verbal skills (Hoffnung et al., 2013). These studies support the suggestion that the FI and ACC are intricately involved in enhancing social behaviours through the utilization of subjective emotional states in applying empathy toward others. ReseachResearch hasis showning a relationship between complex social and emotional processes and the advanced cognitive abilities that underlie the ability of self-recognition (Hunter, 2010). The mirror self-recognition test is used to assess self-awareness in animals and was developed by Gordon G. Gallup (1970) during his work with chimpanzees and self-recognition. In humans the ability to recognise the ‘self’ in a mirror image develops between the ages of 18 and 24 months and this coincides with the development of other indicators of social and self-awareness such as the ability to empathise (Hunter, 2010). As previously mentioned there is a rapid development of VENs during the first year of life and this development continues to age 4 when VEN numbers align to those of adult (Allman et al., 2010). The hypothesised role of VENs in higher cognitive functions and self-conscious awareness is supported by research that has shown the involvement of VENs in the pathogenesis of a number of neuropsychiatric and behavioural conditions that are characterised by deficits in emotional and social functioning, the ability to empathise, impairment of affective language and alterations in conscious awareness (Kaufman et al., 2008). Stereological research suggests that these conditions may be due to the failure of VENs to develop normally or the degeneration of these cells within the ACC and FI (Allman et al., 2005; Butti et al., 2013). This is evident in frontotemporal dementia (FTD) where patients present with a severe reduction in social judgement, empathy and the ability to self-monitor leading to sociopathic behaviour (William W. Seeley et al., 2006). In a study conducted by William W. Seeley et al. (2006) it was shown that FTD is characterised by early injury to the ACC and FI involving e arly, severe and selective VENs loss of 74% compared to controls. Similarly, patients with early onset schizophrenia are characterised by a reduced volume of the ACC showing a significant reduction in the density of VENs (Allman et al., 2010; Brà ¼ne et al., 2010). People with schizophrenia show a broad range of impaired social skills characterised by severe disturbance of cognitive processes and self-conscious awareness giving rise to symptoms that include delusions, hallucinations, disorganised thought and speech, disorganised and catatonic behaviour, poverty of speech and lack of, or inappropriate, responses to socio-emotional cues (Nolen-hoeksema, 2007). Recent research has suggested a connection between these VENs containing areas, self-referential processes and the subjective conscious experience of awareness (Allman et al., 2005; Craig, 2009; William W. Seeley et al., 2006). The evolutionary motivation underlying these adaptations may well have been due to the rise of species living in complex social groups that required the rapid intuitive assessment of social interactions and the ability to differentiate between the needs of oneself and those of others and this may have led to the ability to empathise with the emotional state and needs of individuals within the social structure (Allman et al., 2010; Allman, Tetreault, Hakeem, Park, 2011; Hakeem et al., 2009). We shall consider a model of consciousness where the FI serves to integrate bottom-up interoceptive sensory information with top-down predictions and modulations from higher level prefrontal cortical areas and the ACC generating a state of awareness (Gu, Hof, Friston, Fan , 2013). It is hypothesised that VENs mediate a rapid bidirectional feedback between the integration of sensory information in the AIC and the adaptive behavioral responses mediated by the ACC (Allman et al., 2005). Interoception is the integration of somatosensory information leading to a sense of the physiological state of the body, giving rise to a cortical image or representation of self (Craig, 2002, 2009). In humans the interoceptive network is mediated via afferent spinothalamic neurons projecting to the ventromedial nucleus which is significantly larger in humans than other primates; non-primates are unable to experience body feelings in the same manner as humans do due to the lack of the specific afferent spinothalamocortical pathway involved in â€Å"direct interoceptive representation† (Craig, 2002). This homeostatic information is relayed to the anterior insular cortex where there is a re-representation of this interoceptive cortical image and the ACC is involved in the active modulation of the feeling represented by this image in response to cognitive assessment from the orbitofrontal cortex (Allman et al., 2005; Craig, 2002, 2009; William W. Seeley et al., 2006)(Craig, 2002, 2009; Seeley, 2006; Allman, 2005). It is also worth noting that this top-down cognitive assessment could involve conscious internal dialog and suggests the co-evolution of language and consciousness and that we are conscious in a human sense because we have language. Language is not only used for external communication but internally as parts of our thought processes defining our current mental state and by extension is a defining the broader and more complex brain state (Arbib, 2001). The above research shows that VENs are intricately involved in the convergence of somatosensory information via a highly evolved thalamacortical pathway to the paralimbic structure of the AIC in which emerges an integrated cortical image. Bidirectional signaling between between the AIC, ACC and multiple areas of the brain is mediate via VENs and is a contiual feedback loop that assesses and updates this cortical self-image utilising contextual cues derived from the environment and past experiences accessed from long term memory via hippocampal projections. The AIC cortical self-representation is modulated with emotional context and predictive behavioural responses. References Allman, J. M., Tetreault, N. A., Hakeem, A. Y., Manaye, K. F., Semendeferi, K., Erwin, J. M., . . . Hof, P. R. (2010). The von Economo neurons in frontoinsular and anterior cingulate cortex in great apes and humans. Brain Structure and Function, 214(5-6), 495-517. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00429-010-0254-0 Allman, J. M., Tetreault, N. A., Hakeem, A. Y., Manaye, K. F., Semendeferi, K., Erwin, J. M., . . . Hof, P. R. (2011). The von Economo neurons in the frontoinsular and anterior cingulate cortex. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 1225(1), 59-71. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06011.x Allman, J. M., Tetreault, N. A., Hakeem, A. Y., Park, S. (2011). The von economo neurons in apes and humans. American Journal of Human Biology, 23(1), 5-21. doi: 10.1002/ajhb.21136 Allman, J. M., Watson, K. K., Tetreault, N. A., Hakeem, A. Y. (2005). Intuition and autism: a possible role for Von Economo neurons. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(8), 367-373. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2005.06.008 Arbib, M. A. (2001). Co-Evolution of Human Consciousness and Language. Ann N Y Acad Sci, 929(1), 195-220. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2001.tb05717.x Bauernfeind, A. L., de Sousa, A. A., Avasthi, T., Dobson, S. D., Raghanti, M. A., Lewandowski, A. H., . . . Sherwood, C. C. (2013). A volumetric comparison of the insular cortex and its subregions in primates. Journal of Human Evolution, 64(4), 263-279. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2012.12.003 Brà ¼ne, M., Schà ¶bel, A., Karau, R., Benali, A., Faustmann, P. M., Juckel, G., Petrasch-parwez, E. (2010). Von Economo neuron density in the anterior cingulate cortex is reduced in early onset schizophrenia. Acta Neuropathologica, 119(6), 771-778. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00401-010-0673-2 Butti, C., Santos, M., Uppal, N., Hof, P. R. (2013). Von Economo neurons: Clinical and evolutionary perspectives. Cortex, 49(1), 312-326. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2011.10.004 Craig, A. D. (2002). How do you feel? Interoception: the sense of the physiological condition of the body. Nat Rev Neurosci, 3(8), 655-666. Craig, A. D. (2009). How do you feel now? The anterior insula and human awareness. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 10(1), 59-70. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nrn2555 Critchley, H., Seth, A. (2012). Will Studies of Macaque Insula Reveal the Neural Mechanisms of Self-Awareness? Neuron, 74(3), 423-426. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2012.04.012 Gordon G. Gallup, Jr. (1970). Chimpanzees: Self-Recognition. Science, 167(3914), 86-87. doi: 10.2307/1728199 Gu, X., Hof, P. R., Friston, K. J., Fan, J. (2013). Anterior insular cortex and emotional awareness. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 521(15), 3371-3388. doi: 10.1002/cne.23368 Hakeem, A. Y., Sherwood, C. C., Bonar, C. J., Butti, C., Hof, P. R., Allman, J. M. (2009). Von Economo Neurons in the Elephant Brain. The Anatomical Record: Advances in Integrative Anatomy and Evolutionary Biology, 292(2), 242-248. doi: 10.1002/ar.20829 Hoffnung, M., Hoffnung, R. J., Seifert, K. L., Smith, R. B., Hine, A., Ward, L., PauseÃÅ' , C. (2013). Lifespan development : a chronological approach (Second Australasian Edition ed.): Milton, Qld. John Wiley and Sons Australia. Hunter, P. (2010). The basis of morality. EMBO Reports, 11(3), 166-169. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/embor.2010.19 Kaufman, J., Paul, L., Manaye, K., Granstedt, A., Hof, P., Hakeem, A., Allman, J. (2008). Selective reduction of Von Economo neuron number in agenesis of the corpus callosum. Acta Neuropathologica, 116(5), 479-489. doi: 10.1007/s00401-008-0434-7 Nimchinsky, E. A., Gilissen, E., Allman, J. M., Perl, D. P., Erwin, J. M., Hof, P. R. (1999). A neuronal morphologic type unique to humans and great apes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A, 96(9), 5268-5273. Nolen-hoeksema, S. (2007). Abnormal psychology (E. Barrosse Ed.  ¤4th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Seeley, W. W., Carlin, D. A., Allman, J. M., Macedo, M. N., Bush, C., Miller, B. L., DeArmond, S. J. (2006). Early frontotemporal dementia targets neurons unique to apes and humans. Ann Neurol, 60(6), 660-667. doi: 10.1002/ana.21055 Seeley, W. W., Menon, V., Schatzberg, A. F., Keller, J., Glover, G. H., Kenna, H., . . . Greicius, M. D. (2007). Dissociable intrinsic connectivity networks for salience processing and executive control. J Neurosci, 27(9), 2349-2356. doi: 10.1523/JNEUROSCI.5587-06.2007

Tourism in India

www. Yesbank. in The Travel and Hospitality Industry India’s travel, tourism and hospitality industry is one of the fastest growing service industries in the country thanks to a burgeoning middle class, increasing purchasing power, a rising inflow of foreign tourists, and successful government campaigns promoting ‘Incredible India'. In 2011 alone, travel and tourism contributed to 6. 4% of the GDP, and is forecast to rise by 7. 3% in 2012. In terms of employment, travel and tourism directly supported 24,975,000 jobs (5% of employment) in 2011, and is expected to rise by 3% in 2012. Also read: Importance of Advertising in Tourism IndustryForeign Exchange Earnings (FEE) from tourism in 2011 were $16,564 million with a growth of 16. 7% over 2010. 14 Clearly, India is fast becoming a popular tourist destination world over. Between April 2000 and December 2011, the hotel and tourism sector generated a total of $3,195. 70 billion in Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). 15In 2011 alone, the country welcomed 6. 29 million foreign tourists, compared to 5. 78 million in 2010. 16By 2022, international tourist arrivals are forecast to total 11,276,000, generating an expenditure of `1,382. 6 billion. 7 In 2010-11, the travel and hospitality industry faced the challenge of a significant decline in corporate travel due to serious cost cutting by global corporate houses, as well as the fear of terrorism, and a lack of a sense of safety post the 2008 Mumbai terror attacks. However, the hospitality sector has shown resilience, improving its security management and performance. With the growth of budget hotels along with low cost airlines, online travel bookings, and group travel, SMEs in the travel and tourism sector have shown rapid progress.They have been targeting niche markets specializing in corporate travel, leisure travel, and even hitherto unheard services like wedding travel and planning. â€Å"IATA statistics show that today, maximum business is generated in Asia. Asia and particularly India now have a major role to play in shaping this sector while also enjoying maximum share. However, with more disposable income, Indians prefer to travel overseas rather than within the country.We have over 14 million Indians traveling overseas, but the figure for inbound tourism stands at a dismal 6 million – this can definitely increase if we begin to seriously promote India as a destination to be explored and discovered. †, says Vivek Dadhich, Managing Director of Noida-based Bluemoon Travels, a new age travel company offering leisure travel and MIC E – travel planning services for Meetings, Incentives, Conventions, and Exhibitions. As per an analysis done by retail consultancy Technopak, at the end of 2010 the Indian hotel industry’s worth was estimated around US$ 17 billion.The share of hotel and restaurant sector in the overall economy is still below 2 per cent. For the last five years the total contribution of the hospitality sector has remained stagnant. Although the overall share increased from 1. 46 per cent in 2004-05 to 1. 69 per cent in 2007-08, but then after the phase of economic meltdown in US the total share again decreased to 1. 45 per cent in 2009-10. India ranks in the 153rd position spending 0. 9% for tourism. The hotel and tourism industry’s contribution to the Indian economy by way of foreign direct investments (FDI) inflows were pegged at US$ 2. 5 billion from April 2000 to February 2011, according to the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP). As per an analysis done by r etail consultancy Technopak, at the end of 2010 the Indian hotel industry’s worth was estimated around US$ 17 billion. The share of hotel and restaurant sector in the overall economy is still below 2 per cent. For the last five years the total contribution of the hospitality sector has remained stagnant. Although the overall share increased from 1. 46 per cent in 2004-05 to 1. 69 per cent in 2007-08, but then after the phase of economic meltdown in US the total share again decreased to 1. 5 per cent in 2009-10. India ranks in the 153rd position spending 0. 9% for tourism. The hotel and tourism industry’s contribution to the Indian economy by way of foreign direct investments (FDI) inflows were pegged at US$ 2. 35 billion from April 2000 to February 2011, according to the Department of Industrial Policy and Promotion (DIPP). www. oifc. com overseas Indian facilitation center According to the Tourism Satellite Accounting (TSA) research, released by World Travel and Touri sm Council (WTTC) and its strategic partner Oxford Economics in 2011: * The direct contribution of Travel ;Tourism to GDP is expected to be INR 1,570. billion (US$ 35. 4 billion) (1. 9 per cent of total GDP) in 2011, rising by 8. 1 per cent per annum (pa) to INR 3,414. 8 billion (US$ 77. 0 billion*) (2. 0 per cent) in 2021 * The total contribution of Travel ;Tourism to GDP, including its wider economic impacts, is forecast to rise by 8. 8 per cent pa from INR 3,680. 4 billion (US$ 83. 0 billion) (4. 5 per cent of GDP) in 2011 to INR 8,523. 1 billion (US$ 191. 2 billion*) (4. 9 per cent) by 2021. Total Contribution of Travel ; Tourism to GDP Source: World Travel ; Tourism CouncilThe TSA research also states that the sector is expected to support directly 24,931,000 jobs (5. 0 per cent of total employment) in 2011, rising by 2. 0 per cent pa to 30,439,000 jobs (5. 2 per cent) by 2021. Hotel Industry Due to increasing number of foreign tourist arrivals, together with the growth of dome stic tourism in the country, the hotel industry is also witnessing continued momentum. The Indian Hospitality industry contributes around 2. 2 per cent of India’s GDP. The industry is expected to reach INR 230 billion (US$ 5. 2 billion*) by 2015, growing at a robust CAGR of 12. per cent. India will be investing around INR 448 billion (US$ 10. 1 billion*) in the hospitality industry in the next five years, according to a report ‘The Indian Hotel Industry Report – 2011 Edition’ by CYGNUS Business Consulting ; Research Firm. The industry also witnessed an increase in the number of hotel rooms with a growth of 5 per cent during the last three to four years. In the next two years, a total investment of US$ 12. 2 billion (INR 545. 2 billion*) is expected that will add over 20 new international brands in the hospitality sector.Rise of budget hotels in the country, like Ginger Hotels, Lemon Tree, Sarovar Hotels, Fortune Hotels, Ibis and Choice Hotels clearly sugge st a huge growth potential in the sector. The Growth Path Foreign tourist arrivals in the country have increased substantially during the past decade motivated by both, business and leisure needs and are further expected to grow at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of around 8 per cent during 2010-2014, as per a research report ‘Indian Tourism Industry Analysis’ by research firm RNCOS.In fact, the Tourism sector enjoyed strong growth during 2010, as indicated in the data released by the Ministry of Tourism in January 2011. As per the data, in 2010, the country experienced a strong rebound in the Tourism industry. Foreign Tourist Arrivals (FTAs) * FTAs in India during 2010 were 5. 58 million with a growth rate of 8. 1 per cent as compared to the FTAs of 5. 17 million and growth rate of (-)2. 2 per cent during 2009. * The 8. 1 per cent growth rate in FTAs for 2010 over 2009 for India is much better than UNWTO’s projected growth rate of 5 per cent to 6 per cent f or the world during the same period. FTAs during the month of June 2011, was 3. 96 lakh as compared to FTAs of 3. 70 lakh during the month of June 2010 and 3. 52 lakh in June 2009. There has been a growth of 7. 2 per cent in June 2011 over June 2010 as compared to a growth of 4. 9 per cent registered in June 2010 over June 2009. FTAs during the period January-June 2011 were 29. 19 lakh with a growth of 10. 9 per cent, as compared to the FTAs of 26. 32 lakh with a growth of 8. 9 per cent during January-June 2010 over the corresponding period of 2009. * FEE from Tourism in INR terms during 2010 were INR 648. billion as compared to INR 549. 6 billion during 2009 and INR 507. 3 billion during 2008. FEE from tourism in US$ terms during 2010 were US$ 14. 2 billion as compared to US$ 11. 4 billion during 2009 and US$ 11. 7 billion during 2008. * The growth rate in FEE in INR terms during 2010 was 18. 1 per cent as compared to the growth rate of 8. 3 per cent in 2009 over 2008. Therefore, t he growth rate observed in 2010 over 2009 was substantially high. The growth rate in FEE in US$ terms during 2010 was 24. 6 per cent as compared to a decline of 3 per cent in 2009 over 2008.Therefore, in US$ terms, also growth rate observed in 2010 was positive and substantially high. * FEE in INR terms during the month of June 2011 were INR 54. 4 billion as compared to INR 47. 5 billion in June 2010 and INR 38. 0 billion in June 2009. FEE in US$ terms during the month of June 2011 were US$ 1. 2 billion as compared to FEE of US$ 1. 0 billion during the month of June 2010 and US$ 0. 7 billion in June 2009. * The growth rate in FEE in INR terms in June 2011 over June 2010 was 14. 5 per cent as compared to 25. 0 per cent in June 2010 over June 2009.The growth rate in FEE in US$ terms in June 2011 over June 2010 was 18. 9 per cent as compared to the growth of 28. 1 per cent in June 2010 over June 2009. * FEE from Tourism in INR terms during January-June 2011 were INR 351. 6 billion with a growth of 12. 1 per cent, as compared to the FEE of INR 313. 7 billion with a growth of 27. 1 per cent during January-June 2010 over the corresponding period of 2009. * FEE from Tourism in terms of US$ during January-June 2011 were US$ 7. 8 billion with a growth of 14. 2 per cent, as compared to US$ 6. billion with a growth of 36. 6 per cent during January-June 2010 over the corresponding period of 2009. Visitor exports are a key component of the direct contribution of the sector. According to the TSA research, India is expected to attract 6,179,000 international tourist (overnight visitor) arrivals in 2011, generating INR 678. 6 billion (US$ 15. 3 billion) in visitor exports (foreign visitor spending, including spending on transportation). By 2021, international tourist arrivals are forecast to total 11,149,000, an increase of 6. per cent pa generating expenditure of INR 1,344. 7 billion (US$ 30. 3 billion*). Visitor Exports and International Tourist Arrivals Hospitalityindia. c om Tourism in India is the largest service industry, with a contribution of 6. 23% to the national GDP and 8. 78% of the total employment in India. Indiabiz. com According to Economic Survey of 2010-11 the average annual growth rate of hotel and restaurant sector has been 8. 8 per cent for the period during 2005-06 and 2009–10. However, last two years have not been quite pleasant for the sector as growth faltered badly.Till five years ago, the sector was registering a growth of around 15 per cent but slowdown in the economy has affected the growth prospects of the sector badly and the growth rate has dropped into single digit level. The sector registered negative growth (-3. 41 per cent) in 2008–09 over the year 2007–08, which was due to the adverse global economic conditions in this year. But, the sector is back in the positive growth territory and clocked a growth of 2. 2 per cent in 2009-10. Annual growth rate (in per cent) Year|   2005-06|   2006-07|   2007-08|   2008-09|   2009-10| Hotels ; Restaurants| 17. | 14. 4| 13. 1| -3. 1| 2. 2| Source: Economic Survey 2010-11 Growth Prospects Healthy economic growth recorded in past few years, especially in the services industry, has led to increase in business travel. Higher disposable income and affordability have increased domestic leisure travel in India. Foreign tourist arrivals in India have also grown. The industry’s performance was hit in 2009 due to the global economic slowdown, terror attacks in Mumbai (November 2008) and H1N1 virus. However, the industry has shown signs of recovery in the first half of 2010.This is a clear indicator that the long-term prospects for the Indian travel and tourism industry are bright. India is expected to witness increased tourist activity both in the business and leisure segments in the coming years. International inbound traffic is expected to grow rapidly with increasing investment and trade activity. India has been identified as on e of the fastest-growing countries in terms of tourism demand. The travel and tourism demand is expected to reach US$ 266. 1 bn (` 14,601. 7 bn) by 2019. During 2004–2009 travel and tourism demand in India increased at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 16. % to US$ 91. 7 bn (` 4,412. 7 bn) and foreign exchange earnings from tourism increased ~13% to US$ 11. 39 bn. Some prominent players : Sahara group, viceroy hotels,Carlson, UAE based Istithmar hotel, Netherlands based Golden Tulip Hospitality group, IRCTC, Leela Palace and resorts, DLF Universal Major players: Indian Hotels Company Limited (the Taj group) EIH Limited (the Oberoi group) ITC Hotels Limited Indian Tourism Development Corporation Small chains: Hotel Leela Venture Asian Hotels (Hyatt International Corporation) Bharat Hotels Public Sector Chain:ITDC and HCI Govt initiatives: Incredible India Atithie devo bhava Porter’s five forces: Threat of substitute goods: Presence of many hotels around the corner Hotels have varying price ranges and amenities and it is difficult to predict customer’s choice of choosing a hotel. The internet makes the overall market more efficient while expanding the size of the potential market and creating new substitution threats. Another hotel chain may erode your customer base with a newly formulated internet approach or marketing campaign. Bargaining Power of Buyers:Business persons choosing a hotel are tech savvy and find it easy to search for cheaper hotels in internet and book them. This eliminates middle men and intermediaries which in turn increases the bargaining power. The cost of switching is very low, which is again a high bargaining power on the side of buyers. This industry has numerous customers who are  relatively very small in size. Loss of  a single customer has little impact on a hotel company and this drives down the buyers  bargaining power. Rivalry among existing competitors The rivalry among competitors in the hotel ind ustry is fierce.When potential customers can learn about a hotel on line, the internet reduces the differences among competitors. People tend to seek the best price for the best experience and the tendency is to reduce price to be competitive. The internet covers wide geographical areas so the market is widened increasing the number of competitors. Barriers to entry: Initial investment cost is very high. A vital barrier would be differentiation. A hotel that can differential itself by location, by service, amenities or some other quality has the potential to attract and keep its clients.Another barrier to entry would be expertise. Unfortunately, in a mobile society employees frequently leave one hotel chain to work in another and they take that expertise in terms of training or of experience with them. It is in the areas of expertise and of differentiation that a hotel can make the greatest impact on its client and thereby on its bottom line. Economies of scale are also a huge facto r in this industry. Profitability of hotel chains is  drastically higher  than individual operations.A new entrant cannot  compete with established players in terms or quality and price  if they cannot establish significant economies of scale. High exit barriers because of the specialized assets. Bargaining power of suppliers: Two key suppliers for hotel industry are labour and real estate. The number of suppliers for  the Hotel industry is quite large and each supplier  is very small in size compared to the leading players in the industry. These few  powerful players are indispensible to the suppliers. Substitutability of the suppliers is also quite feasible and inexpensive.Switching between real estate agents is not going to affect  a particular Hotel company significantly. However in terms of quality, training centers for employees and ICT  manufacturers who provide IT systems that for property management are relatively more difficult to replace. Therefore in te rms of  substitute suppliers industry attractiveness is  moderately high. Industry’s threat of backward integration is pretty high since large hotel chains like ITC or IHCL  would have no qualms expanding into the real estate  business or developing employee training facilities in-house. Technology:Innovative designs, technological advancements and next generation interior concepts are keys to maintaining the Indian hospitality industry's success and to attract the next generation of customers. The concept, design, plan, materials, technology each aspect used in a hotel, restaurant or any property is ever changing and breaths technology for advancement and recognition. The brand loyalty increases with the concept and luxury of the hotel, no more with names. Technology plays a vital role in helping hotels expand and provide great services to the next generation of travellers.Availability enquiries, travel arrangements, local transport, gate entry, reception desks, elev ators, room, in-room features and everything travellers see and touch hotel are enhanced with the right technology and concept. To harness India’s tourism potential, several efforts are being taken for opening new destinations and exploring niche segments. However, infrastructure facilities such as air, rail, road connectivity, and hospitality services at these destinations and the connecting cities are inadequate.This remains a major hurdle for development of tourism. Roadways form a vital network in the tourist industry with almost 70% tourists in India travelling by road. Moreover, many tourist circuits depend on roads. Despite numerous efforts to improve road infrastructure, connectivity remains a major problem. There is a greater need for strengthened road and rail network, development of more expressways, and tourist-specific routes to improve connectivity to various locations across different regions.Aviation infrastructure is also critical since it is a major mode of entry for inbound tourism. Passenger traffic is expected to increase in the coming years; however infrastructure facilities at airports are cause for concern. Expansion and development of airports at major gateway cities is underway to cater to the increasing passenger traffic. However, in addition, airport facilities at important secondary cities and tourist destinations also need to be improved to be able to handle greater passenger traffic.

Instant Solutions for Lady of Shalott Essay Topics

Instant Solutions for Lady of Shalott Essay Topics Most Noticeable Lady of Shalott Essay Topics Otherwise, third, you might want to grow her in a huge pot or container. This method should make certain you don't receive any air pockets around the roots. Place the root ball in the hole so the top of the main ball is level with the face of the surrounding soil. There's a depiction of reeds beside the boat. Actually, late winter is the very best time to plant. About two thousand flowers are expected to produce 1 gram of oil! As they don't need to give water to leaves or flowers, they often establish quickly. This additional layer of protection is particularly vital for grafted Roses. ICUMSA is the sole global organisation concerned solely with analytical techniques for the sugar market. She's so vigorous that it is extremely difficult to take charge of her. Nevertheless, in this instance, it's also her serious weakness. There's a price to cover everything. If you get a shady spot, it is ordinarily the case which you don't understand the way to best use it. In reality, you've got three options in case you decide to go with her. It turned out to be a small kit to create beaded fringe earrings. Second, I'll explain how and why it's bad luck for a mirror to shatter. A busted mirror is going to have drastic and negative influence on the future of whoever is involved. I will be able to this at the conclusion of this review. The perspective of the spectator is at the degree of the surface of the youthful woman. Perhaps most of us do sometimes. This emphasises the way she's very decisive. Just locate a great assistance for students in need. What Does Lady of Shalott Essay Topics Mean? Work is performed under various Subjects each headed by means of a Referee. Part five starts off with a considerable reversal of mood. Julia Child is the hardiest floribunda I have ever had. This isn't an instance of the work generated by our Essay Writing Service. Some gardeners do not even wish to consider about Lady of Shalott anymore since they just can't make decision. It is among the best novels I ever read. He then published Poems, another form of the first with rewritten and some additional poems. The Pain of Lady of Shalott Essay Topics However, you still must offer enough room to grow. To begin with, you've got to give her lots of space for her to grow. This is because she's cursed to remain in the tower. She would like to leave the tower and realize the world. A curse was put upon her meaning that she must remain in the tower, not look to the nearby town of Camelot. To make things worse, she doesn't even get to appear at the world directly through the window. Her life can be associated with my life and the majority of other teenager's life. A completely different world opened up! There is significantly more interesting info about various characteristics and peculiarities of this poem. Throughout part one, stanza one to four, there are a number of imagery used to create a very clear vision for those readers. The majority of the images occur in the second portion of the poem. Get your customized essay sample. As the writers weren't heavily effected by the industrial revolution they could live far more comfortable lives in contrast with the peasants. The development of the poem is an intriguing study. Since you can see occasionally rhyming couplets are used to provide a rhythm to the poem. Upon second reading is as soon as the authentic temperament of the poem appeared. Since I talked above, vigor is just one of her strengths also. She died, as a result of cancer at age 64 in 1894. He started to write at age eight.

How to Conjugate the Verb Scrivere in Italian

Translated and used exactly like its English counterpart to write, the verb scrivere is a transitive irregular verb of the second conjugation. What makes it irregular is a quirky passato remoto and its irregular past participle, scritto. Derived from the Latin scribere, it gives the English language scribe, scriber, and scribing, which should help you remember what it means. Write Something Scrivere is a transitive verb that generally conjugates with avere as auxiliary in its compound tenses and has a direct object and sometimes indirect objects, too, For example, to write about something, on something, to someone, for someone: Scrivo articoli di politica per un quotidiano. I write articles about politics for a daily.Gli egiziani scrivevano sul papiro; noi scriviamo sul computer. The Egyptians wrote on papyrus; we write on computers.Amo scrivere poesie in francese su carta da scrivere a fiori. I love to write poems in French on writing paper with flowers.Marco mi scrive molte lettere sulle sue esperienze a Parigi. Marco writes me many letters about his experiences in Paris.Gli studenti scrivono tutto quello che dice il prof. The students write down everything the professor says. As in English, you also find scrivere di something, still used transitively: Il Ciatti scrive di politica. Ciatti writes about politics. So, if you want to ask someone what they write about generally, or what they are writing an essay about, you ask, Di che scrivi? or, Su che scrivi il tuo tema? Scrivere Reciprocal But scrivere can also be used in the form scriversi, with reciprocal meaning and what appears to be (but is not really) reflexive value, if you and someone write each other or if you write something to yourself, say, a note. In those cases it takes essere in its compound tenses (and has past participle agreement) but it still is transitive with a direct object as you are still writing something: Mi sono scritta un biglietto per ricordare lappuntamento. I wrote myself a note to remember the appointment.Io e Luigi ci siamo scritti tante lettere per molti anni. Luigi and I wrote each other many letters for many years. How Do You Spell It and What Does It Say? While you learn Italian, you will find particularly handy scriveres impersonal construction, Come si scrive?: Come si scrive il tuo cognome? How do you spell your last name?Come si scrive quella parola? How do you spell that word? And, finally, you will often find cà ¨/ci sono and cera/cerano in conjunction with scritto to say what something says or said: Che cà ¨ scritto nella lettera di Marco? Whats written in Marcos letter/what does Marcos letter say?Sul muro cerano scritte parole di protesta politica. On the wall were (written) words of political protest. Lets see how it conjugates. Indicativo Presente: Present Indicative In the presente the verb scrivere is entirely regular. Io scrivo Io scrivo tanti articoli. I write lots of articles. Tu scrivi Tu scrivi biglietti a tutti. You write notes to everyone. Lui/lei/Lei scrive Il poeta scrive poesie d'amore. The poet writes love poems. Noi scriviamo Noi scriviamo nel diario. We write in our diary. Voi scrivete Voi scrivete molti SMS. You write many text messages. Loro/Loro scrivono Gli studenti scrivono male in francese. The students write poorly in French. Indicativo Passato Prossimo: Present Perfect Indicative Passato prossimo with avere and the participio passato, scritto. Io ho scritto Io ho scritto tanti articoli. I wrote/have written many articles. Tu hai scritto Tu hai scritto biglietti a tutti. You wrote/have written notes to everyone. Lui/lei/Lei ha scritto Quest'anno il poeta ha scritto molte poesie d'amore. This year the poet wrote/has written many love poems. Noi abbiamo scritto Noi abbiamo scritto nel diario. We wrote/have written in our diary. Voi avete scritto Voi avete scritto molti SMS oggi. You wrote/have written a lot of texts today. Loro/Loro hanno scritto Gli studenti hanno scritto male in Francese questa settimana. The students wrote poorly in French this week. Indicativo Imperfetto: Imperfect Indicative Scrivere has a regular imperfetto. Io scrivevo Prima scrivevo molti articoli; adesso meno. Before, I wrote many articles; now, less. Tu scrivevi Ogni anno tu scrivevi biglietti di buone feste a tutti. Every year you used to write holiday cards to everyone. Lui/lei/Lei scriveva Il poeta scriveva una poesia d'amore ogni anno. The poet used to write a love poem every year. Noi scrivevamo Da bambine noi scrivevamo sempre nel diario. As little girls we wrote in our diary all the time. Voi scrivevate Alla scuola media scrivevate gli SMS sempre. In middle school you texted all the time. Loro/Loro scrivevano Con il vecchio prof gli studenti scrivevano male in francese. With the old teacher the students wrote poorly in French. Indicativo Passato Remoto: Indicative Remote Past Other than the past participle, the passato remoto is the only irregular tense of scrivere. Io scrissi Nel 1993 scrissi molti articoli. In 1993 I wrote many articles. Tu scrivesti Dopo la guerra scrivesti biglietti di buone feste a tutti. Right after the war, you wrote holiday cards to everyone. Lui/lei/Lei scrisse Durante la sua vita il poeta scrisse molte poesie d'amore. During his life the poet wrote many love poems. Noi scrivemmo Nel 1970 scrivemmo nel diario tutti i giorni. In 1970 we wrote in our diary every day. Voi scriveste Quando fu inventato il cellulare scriveste SMS a tutti. When the cell phone was invented you wrote texts to everyone. Loro/Loro scrissero I miei giovani studenti scrissero sempre male in francese. My young students always wrote poorly in French. Indicativo Trapassato Prossimo: Indicative Past Perfect The trapassato prossimo is a past tense that happened before something else also in the past. Made with the imperfect of the auxiliary and the past participle. Io avevo scritto Avevo scritto molti articoli ma sono andati perduti. I had written many articles but they were lost. Tu avevi scritto Tu avevi scritto biglietti a tutti ma non li hai spediti. You had written cards to everyone but you didn't mail them. Lui/lei/Lei aveva scritto Il poeta aveva scritto bellissime poesie d'amore ma le distrusse. The poet had written beautiful love poems but he destroyed them. Noi avevamo scritto Quando sono arrivati, avevamo già   scritto nel diario e non ci poterono fermare. When they arrived, we had already written in our diary and they could not stop us. Voi avevate scritto Quando vi tolsero il cellulare avevate già   scritto gli SMS. When they took your phone away, you had already written the texts. Loro/Loro avevano scritto Fino a quel punto gli studenti avevano scritto male in francese; poi la situazione cambià ². Until that point, the students had always written poorly in French. Then something changed. Indicativo Trapassato Remoto: Indicative Preterite Perfect Noted for its literary uses, the trapassato remoto is another compound tense, made with the passato remoto of the auxiliary and the past participle. It is used in subordinate constructions with the passato remoto and such terms as quando, dopo che, non appena che. It is for very old stories. Io ebbi scritto Quando ebbi scritto molti articoli, andai in pensione. After I had written many articles, I retired. Tu avesti scritto Appena avesti scritto i biglietti a tutti, partisti. As soon as you had written notes to everyone, you left. Lui/lei/Lei ebbe scritto Dopo che ebbe scritto la sua pià ¹ famosa poesia d'amore, il poeta morà ¬. After he had written his most famous love poem, the poet died. Noi avemmo scritto Dopo che avemmo scritto nel diario, lo nascondemmo. After we had written in our diary, we hit it. Voi aveste scritto Dopo che aveste scritto tutti quei SMS vi bocciarono. After you had written all those texts they flunked you. Loro/Loro ebbero scritto Dopo che ebbero scritto male in francese tutti quegli anni li bocciarono. After they had written poorly in French for all those years, they flunked them. Indicativo Futuro Semplice: Indicative Simple Future A regular futuro semplice. Io scriverà ² Nel corso della mia carriera scriverà ² molti articoli. In the course of my career I will write many articles. Tu scriverai A Natale scriverai biglietti a tutti. At Christmas you will write cards to everyone. Lei/lui/Lei scriverà   Forse un giorno il poeta scriverà   poesie d'amore. Maybe one day the poet will write love poems. Noi scriveremo Noi scriveremo sempre nel diario. We will always write in our diary. Voi scriverete Voi scriverete sempre gli SMS ai vostri amici, nonostante le regole. You will always send texts to your friends, no matter the rules. Loro/Loro scriveranno Gli studenti di quel prof scriveranno sempre male in francese. That teacher's students will always write poorly in French. Indicativo Futuro Anteriore: Indicative Future Perfect The futuro anteriore is made of the simple present of the auxiliary and scritto. It expresses action that will happen after something else will have happened. Io avrà ² scritto Quando avrà ² scritto molti articoli andrà ² in pensione. When I will have written many articles I will retire. Tu avrai scritto Sarai contenta quando avrai scritto biglietti a tutti. You will be happy once you will have written cards to everyone. Lui/lei/Lei avrà   scritto Il poeta pubblicherà   il suo libro quando avrà   scritto il suo pià ¹ bel poema d'amore. The poet will publish his book when he will have written his most beautiful love poem. Noi avremo scritto Dopo che avremo scritto nel diario lo bruceremo. After we will have written in our diary, we will burn it. Voi avrete scritto Quando avrete scritto tutti gli SMS che volete vi bocceremo. When you will have written all the texts you want, we will flunk you. Loro/Loro avranno scritto Se gli studenti avranno scritto male in francese anche questa volta li boccerà ². If the students will have written poorly in French on this exam too, I will flunk them. Congiuntivo Presente: Present Subjunctive The presente congiuntivo of scrivere is regular. Che io scriva Il mio editore vuole che io scriva molti articoli. My editor wants me to write many articles. Che tu scriva Non à ¨ necessario che tu scriva biglietti a tutti. It is not necessary that you write cards to everyone. Che lui/lei/Lei scriva Spero che il poeta scriva bellissime poesie d'amore. I hope the poet writes beautiful love poems. Che noi scriviamo Dubito che oggi scriviamo nel diario. I doubt that today we will write in our diary. Che voi scriviate Voglio che non scriviate pià ¹ SMS in classe. I want you to not write texts in class anymore. Che loro/Loro scrivano Temo che gli studenti scrivano ancora male in francese. I fear that the students still write poorly in French. Congiuntivo Passato: Present Perfect Subjunctive Il congiuntivo passato is a compound tense, made of the present subjunctive of the auxiliary and the past participle. Che io abbia scritto Il mio editore à ¨ felice che io abbia scritto molti articoli. My editor is happy that I have written many articles. Che tu abbia scritto Non ne dubito che tu abbia scritto biglietti a tutti. I don't doubt that you have written cards to everyone. Che lui/lei/Lei abbia scritto Sebbene il poeta abbia scritto bellissime poesie d'amore, non le vuole pubblicare. Though the poet has written/wrote beautiful love poems, he does not wish to publish them. Che noi abbiamo scritto Temo che oggi non abbiamo scritto nel diario. I fear that today we have not written in our dairy. Che voi abbiate scritto Vi promuoviamo purchà ¨ non abbiate pià ¹ scritto SMS in classe. We will pass you as long as you have not written more texts in class. Che loro/Loro abbiano scritto Mi deprime che gli studenti abbiano scritto ancora male in francese. It depresses me that the students have written/wrote poorly in French again. Congiuntivo Imperfetto: Imperfect Subjunctive The congiuntivo imperfetto of scrivere is regular, and, as usual, used with a subordinate clause in the imperfetto. Che io scrivessi Il mio editore voleva che io scrivessi sempre molti articoli, ma ero stanca. My editor wanted me to write always more articles, but I was tired. Che tu scrivessi Non era necessario che tu scrivessi davvero biglietti a tutti. It was not necessary that you write cards to everyone. Che lui/lei/Lei scrivesse I lettori volevano che il poeta scrivesse sempre pià ¹ poesie d'amore. The readers wanted the poet to write more love poems. Che noi scrivessimo Mi dispiaceva che non scrivessimo pià ¹ nel diario. I was sorry that we didn't write in our diary anymore. Che voi scriveste Era importante che voi non scriveste pià ¹ SMS in classe. It was important that you stop writing texts in class. Che loro/Loro scrivessero Era un peccato che gli studenti scrivessero cosà ¬ male in francese. It was a pity that the students wrote to poorly in French. Congiuntivo Trapassato: Past Perfect Subjunctive The congiuntivo trapassato  is a compound tense, made of the imperfect subjunctive of the auxiliary plus the past participle and can be accompanied in constructions with tenses ranging from the indicative imperfetto or passato prossimo to the conditional. Che io avessi scritto Anche se avessi scritto ancora pià ¹ articoli il mio editore non sarebbe stato contento. Even if I had written more articles my editor would not have been happy. Che tu avessi scritto Avevo immaginato che tu avessi scritto i biglietti a tutti. I had imagined that you had written cards to everyone. Che lui/lei/Lei avesse scritto Volevamo che il poeta avesse scritto ancora altre poesie d'amore; invece ha smesso. We wanted for the poet to have written more love poems; instead, he stopped. Che noi avessimo scritto La mamma ha pensato che avessimo scritto nel diario e percià ² avevamo fatto tardi. Mom thought we had written in our diary and therefore we were late. Che voi aveste scritto Vorrei che non aveste scritto gli SMS in classe. I wish that you have not written texts in class. Che loro/Loro avessero scritto Il professore temeva che gli studenti avessero scritto male in francese nel compito in classe. The professor feared that the students had written poorly in French on the test. Condizionale Presente: Present Conditional Il condizionale presente of scrivere is also regular. Io scriverei Io scriverei pià ¹ articoli se potessi. I would write more articles if I could. Tu scriveresti Tu scriveresti biglietti a tutti se avessi il tempo. You would write cards to everyone if you had the time. Lui/lei/Lei scriverebbe Il poeta scriverebbe poesie d'amore tutti i giorni se potesse. The poem would write love poems all day if he could. Noi scriveremmo Noi scriveremmo nel diario ogni mattina se non avessimo lezione. We would write in our diary in the morning if we didn't have lessons. Voi scrivereste Voi scrivereste SMS in classe se il prof non vi vedesse. You would write texts in class if the prof wouldn't see you. Loro/Loro scriverebbero Gli studenti scriverebbero male in francese se non avessero un tutore. The students would write poorly in French if they didn't have a tutor. Condizionale Passato: Perfect Conditional Il condizionale passato is formed with the present conditional of the auxiliary plus the past participle. Io avrei scritto Se non fossi partita avrei scritto altri articoli. If I had not left, I would have written more articles. Tu avresti scritto Se avessi avuto il tempo avresti scritto biglietti a tutti. If you had had the time you would have written cards to everyone. Lui/lei/Lei avrebbe scritto Il poeta avrebbe scritto altre poesie d'amore se non fosse morto. The poet would have written more love poems had he not died. Noi avremmo scritto Noi avremmo scritto nel diario se la mamma non ce lo avesse nascosto. We would have written in our diary had mom not hidden it. Voi avreste scritto Voi avreste scritto gli SMS in classe se non vi avessimo tolto il telefono. You would have written texts in class had we not taken your phone away. Loro/Loro avrebbero scritto Gli studenti avrebbero scritto male in francese se non avessero avuto un tutore. The students would have written poorly in French had they not had a tutor. Imperative: Imperative Tu scrivi Scrivimi una lettera! Write me a letter! Noi scriviamo Scriviamo un bel messaggio a Lucia. Let's write a nice message to Lucia. Voi scrivete Scrivete alla nonna! Write to your grandmother! Infinito Presente Passato: Present Past Infinitive Scrivere Scrivere un libro richiede molto lavoro. To write/writing a book requires a lot of work. Avere scritto 1. Aver scritto un libro à ¨ una bella soddisfazione.2. So di aver scritto l'assegno ma non lo trovo. 1. To have written/having written a book is a big satisfaction. 2. I know I wrote/I am sure to have written a check but I can't find it. Participio Presente Passato: Present Past Participle Both present and past participles can function as nouns and adjectives. Scrivente is used as the one writing. Scrivente Lo scrivente confessa di aver rapinato la banca. The one writing/the writer confesses to have robbed the bank. Scritto 1. Ha un bellissimo italiano scritto. 2. Gli studenti devono fare un esame scritto. 1. She has a beautiful written Italian. 2. The students must take a written exam. Gerundio Presente Passato: Present Past Gerund Scrivendo 1. Scrivendo, ho capito meglio i miei pensieri. 2. Gli studenti erano seduti in silenzio, scrivendo. 1. Writing, I better understood my thoughts. 2. The students were silently seated in class, writing. Avendo scritto Avendo scritto l'ultima parola, lo scrittore chiuse il quaderno e spense la luce. Having written the last word, the writer closed the notebook and turned off the light.